Executive Summary
The armed conflict in West Papua throughout 2024 remained a driving force behind human rights violations in the Papuan provinces, characterised by reports of extrajudicial killings, disappearances and torture by security forces, particularly in the highlands. Authorities continued to restrict freedom of expression by dispersing peaceful protests. Under Indonesia’s new government, led by former military general Prabowo Subianto, pressure on West Papua’s indigenous peoples’ land and cultural heritage has intensified. Military forces secure the exploitation of West Papua’s natural resources through national strategic projects and private investment, heightening the risk of violence in these regions.
Infrastructure projects and resource extraction remained the government’s priority, yet offered minimal advantages to indigenous Papuans. Despite special autonomy funding, healthcare and education saw little improvement, particularly in conflict zones where military personnel replaced professional teachers and health workers who fled due to violence.
According to local media and human rights defenders, by December 2024, over 85,000 Papuans remained internally displaced following armed clashes and security force raids that destroyed their homes and livestock. The heavy military presence deterred many from returning home, leaving displaced persons with limited options. Most survive in makeshift camps or with relatives, lacking access to basic services.
The structure of this report consists of two primary sections. The first one, ‘Civil and Political Rights’, is subdivided into six subsections that include: impunity, killings and torture, freedom of expression, and additional key topics, thoroughly presenting documented cases and relevant statistical evidence. The second section, ‘Conflict and Displacement’, explores the armed conflict’s effects on indigenous populations and the challenges faced by internally displaced persons, underscoring the complexities of the human rights situation in West Papua.
Civil and Political Rights
Impunity
Impunity remains a major obstacle to addressing human rights abuses in West Papua. The combination of opaque internal investigations and lenient sentences for police and military personnel fosters a climate of impunity. Neither military courts nor police procedures provide victim compensation. Allegations linking victims to armed independence movements are routinely amplified in national media, effectively deterring investigations and legal proceedings against perpetrators. The spread of misinformation about human rights violations shapes public discourse on military presence in the region, with military spokespersons frequently dismissing rights defenders’ claims and victims’ testimonies as hoaxes, thereby hampering accountability.
Civilian court proceedings against suspects remain exceptionally rare, as evidenced by the stark disparity between documented cases of torture, killings, and disappearances compared to actual investigations and trials. Throughout 2024, HRM recorded no prosecutions resulting in public trials of police or military-affiliated perpetrators.
Despite advocacy efforts by relatives and human rights organisations, Indonesian police and military institutions have proven largely impervious to public pressure. A notable exception occurred in March 2024 when footage emerged of soldiers torturing three indigenous Papuans in Puncak Regency. Following public outcry, the XVII/Cenderawasih Military Command detained eight soldiers allegedly involved. However, the subsequent Komnas HAM investigation has progressed slowly, with no public disclosure of findings from either Komnas HAM or military police investigations. As of January 2025, the community continues to demand justice for Mr Tobias Silak’s unlawful execution by security forces in Yahukimo on 20 August 2024 – one of dozens of extrajudicial killings in 2024 that remain unaddressed through legal channels.
Killings and Torture
Extrajudicial killings have surged since 2019, peaking at 17 cases in both 2023 and 2024 (see Table 1). Whilst extra-judicial executions and enforced disappearances typically occurred during security force raids targeting the West Papua National Liberation Army (TPNPB), torture and ill-treatment remain widespread amongst military and law enforcement personnel in West Papua. Statistics on torture and ill-treatment cases have shown no decrease over the past decade, maintaining consistent annual figures with minor fluctuations before reaching a new peak of 53 cases in 2024.
The widespread use of torture and extrajudicial killings by security forces is closely linked to impunity. Statistics show that indigenous Papuans constitute the majority of victims, being more susceptible to excessive force by security personnel than non-Papuans – a consequence of racial discrimination and stigmatisation.
The UN Human Rights Committee reviewed Indonesia’s implementation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) in Geneva on 11-12 March 2024. The concluding observations on Indonesia’s second periodic report, adopted on 28 March 2024, addressed West Papua’s human rights concerns regarding impunity, accountability for past violations, torture and other forms of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment.
Freedom of Expression
In 2024, police continued to restrict freedom of expression for indigenous Papuans and solidarity groups within and outside West Papua. As in previous years, peaceful protests by student movements and political groups were prevented or forcefully dispersed despite being properly registered under national law. Activists, journalists, and human rights defenders faced ongoing intimidation and physical violence. Indonesian authorities particularly targeted Papuan human rights defenders who spoke about the situation at the UN Human Rights Council in Geneva and the Permanent Peoples Tribunal in London. The statistical figures on political detentions and dispersed peaceful protests indicate a slight decline over the past years. However, they do not mirror a significant change in the overall situation.
Police routinely dispersed peaceful demonstrations addressing self-determination, transmigration, or human rights. Arbitrary arrests often involved police violence against protesters, representing a strategy to suppress public attention on sensitive issues. These arrests violate both freedom of peaceful assembly and freedom from arbitrary arrest, though protesters are typically released within 24 hours due to insufficient evidence for criminal charges.
The criminalisation of political activists continues, though statistics show declining use of Articles 106 and 110 of the Indonesian Criminal Code (KUHP) regarding treason and conspiracy against the state. Only four Papuans[1] were sentenced for treason in 2024. Instead, authorities increasingly employed criminal provisions on murder, abetment to murder or unauthorised weapon possession to prosecute political suspects.
Political organisations like the West Papua National Committee (KNPB) faced continued repression, intimidation, and prosecution throughout 2024. The reporting period also saw some positive developments. On 24 September 2024, the Indonesian Supreme Court delivered a significant victory for civil liberties by upholding the acquittal of human rights activists Haris Azhar and Fatia Maulidiyanti in a lawsuit against the Indonesian Minister for Maritime and Investment Affairs, Luhut Pandjaitan.
Statistics show a slight decrease in forcefully dispersed peaceful demonstrations, though police intervened in 27 protests during 2024—significantly more than in 2023 but fewer than the peak years of 2019 and 2020, when political developments had sparked increased civil society activity (see Table 1).
Table 1: Statistical table on civil and political rights violations in West Papua between 2019 and 2024
| Data on civil and political rights in West Papua | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 | 2023 | 2024 | |
| Nr. of reported torture/ill-treatment cases* | 22 | 34 | N/A | 46 | 39 | 53 | |
| Nr. of reported torture/ill-treatment victims* | 126 | 89 | 69 | 223 | 160+ | 166+ | |
| Nr. of reported cases of extra-judicial killings | 16 | 16 | N/A | 14 | 17 | 17 | |
| Nr. of reported victims of extra-judicial killings | 33 | 25 | 17 | 18 | 42 | 21 | |
| Nr. of reported cases of enforced disappearances | 2 | 2 | N/A | 3 | 2 | 3 | |
| Nr. of reported victims of enforced disappearances | 6 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 3 | 3 | |
| Nr. of sanctions against perpetrators of police and military | 2 | 2 | N/A | 13 | 7 | 0 | |
| Nr. of political arbitrary detentions | 619 | 384 | 585 | 492 | 311 | 396 | |
| Nr. of peaceful demonstrations/assemblies on West Papua issues forcefully intervened by security forces* | 38 | 37 | N/A | 29 | 13 | 27 | |
| Nr. of persons sentenced for treason & criminal conspiracy (Article 106 and/or 110 KUHP) | 86 | 18 | N/A | 15 | 10 | 4 | |
| *include cases/victims of violations against indigenous Papuans and non-Papuan solidarity groups outside West Papua | |||||||
| (+) dozens more besides the documented victims in one or more cases. Source: HRM Database, compilation from Media sources, NGOs and HRDs | |||||||
Indigenous Peoples
Indigenous people in West Papua face unprecedented pressure from government projects and private investors seeking to exploit the region’s abundant natural resources, including precious minerals, timber and sparsely populated lands. Throughout 2024, HRM documented an increasing number of land-grabbing cases. These revealed that private investors routinely circumvent the Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) process required from indigenous communities holding customary land ownership. Such cases were reported across the Papuan regencies of Merauke, Mimika, Deiyai, Sorong, and Intan Jaya. The central Government’s national strategic food security project in Merauke Regency poses a particular threat, as it will inevitably displace thousands of indigenous Malind people. The project has deployed hundreds of excavators and plans to convert at least 1 million hectares of forest and savanna grassland into rice fields.
Indigenous communities’ legal efforts to resolve land conflicts with companies proved unsuccessful throughout 2024. On 1 November 2024, the Indonesian Supreme Court rejected the cassation appeal filed by the indigenous Awyu tribe regarding the environmental feasibility permit granted to PT Indo Asiana Lestari (IAL). Despite a 17-month legal battle, supported by the Coalition to Save Papua’s Indigenous Forests, the court upheld the permit, leaving the Awyu’s customary forests at risk of destruction for palm oil expansion. The decision marks a significant setback for indigenous and environmental defenders in Indonesia. Yet, some Papuan indigenous communities have successfully protected their customary land through official registration with local governments. The government of Sorong Selatan Regency officially recognised the indigenous peoples and customary territories of four sub-tribes in Konda District through a Regent Decree.
Health
Indigenous Papuans face a stark healthcare disparity, particularly in rural areas. The availability and accessibility of medical facilities in predominantly Indigenous regions are severely limited. Remote areas suffer from outdated equipment, chronic medication shortages and a scarcity of doctors, who are concentrated in urban centres. Many regencies rely solely on health centres (Puskesmas), which are often poorly equipped and lack medical specialists, forcing residents to travel long distances for advanced treatments.
The ongoing armed conflict further exacerbates the healthcare crisis. In the central highlands, poorly equipped hospitals may serve entire regions due to abandoned or destroyed Puskesmas. The government’s attempt to address the healthcare gap by deploying military personnel raises concerns. While they support a constrained provision of medical services in both conflict and neighbouring non-conflict areas, their presence raises fear among Papuans due to past human rights violations and prevents them from accessing the limited services. Military personnel also requisition healthcare facilities for combat purposes. On 24 May 2024, military members took control of the third floor of Uwibutu General Hospital in the Paniai Regency to approach TPNPB fighters, asking all patients and health personnel to leave the hospital. All medical services were temporarily ceased, and intensive care patients had to be transferred to other general hospitals.
Although healthcare has improved in some Papuan towns, government efforts have not significantly enhanced access in rural areas where most Papuans reside. These disparities contribute to higher maternal and newborn mortality rates. In the under-developed Papua Pegunungan Province, 47.4% of births (of a live-born child from ever-married women aged 15-49 years) were delivered at a health facility as of 2024, compared to the national average of 92.4%. Despite high rates of birth attendance in the absence of professional medical personnel in some Papuan regencies, West Papua has seen a decline in maternity hospitals, dropping from 12 in 2014 to only 2 in 2021.[2]
Whilst some statistics show an increase in general hospitals, many regencies still lack basic facilities. The Government constructed five new hospitals in Papua Barat and Papua Barat Daya provinces between 2021 and 2023. Current government statistics report 12 hospitals in Papua Barat Daya and 13 in Papua Barat Province. However, statistics on health facilities in Papua Selatan and Papua Tengah provinces remain unchanged since 2021, making it difficult to assess progress in hospital construction in the former Papua Province.
Over 85,000 internally displaced Papuans face an acute health crisis. Since the intensification of conflict in early 2019, internally displaced persons (IDPs) have lacked access to proper healthcare, with women and children particularly vulnerable. Long distances, transportation costs and missing legal documents create additional barriers to medical treatment. The United Nations High Commission on Human Rights Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (CESCR) highlighted these issues in their March 2024 concluding observations, particularly noting high maternal mortality rates among displaced women.
Education
West Papua faces a hidden education crisis. Whilst government statistics in recent years suggest increased numbers of teachers and facilities, the data for 2022-2024 is either incomplete or questionable. The administrative division of Papua and Papua Barat into six new provinces complicates efforts to assess the overall education situation. Provincial-level statistics make historical comparisons difficult, with some regions, such as Papua Tengah Province, failing to publish updated figures on schools, pupils and teachers for 2024.
Crucial issues like high teacher absenteeism, low education quality, and poor school infrastructure persist even in urban areas. Some schools in remote areas have been dysfunctional for years. Literacy rates expose long-term failures. Indonesia’s highest illiteracy rates in 2024 persisted in the provinces Papua Pegunungan with 29.6% and Papua Tengah with 15,3% among children aged 15 years and older, which is precarious considering the national average among the same age groups is 3.33%. Both provinces also have the lowest school participation rate (AMP) for primary students, with 69% in Papua Tengah and 75,4% in Papua Pegunungan, compared to the national average of 97,9% among the same age group in 2024. West Papua’s rural areas, predominantly inhabited by indigenous Papuans, are most affected by this educational disparity.
The armed conflict in West Papua, which intensified in 2019, has severely disrupted education, leaving children in conflict zones without access to proper schooling. Many children either abandon their education or seek schooling in urban areas. Numerous schools in conflict zones have been deserted for years as teachers flee from violence. The Indonesian Government’s response of deploying military personnel to teach in conflict-affected public schools has raised serious concerns, as many indigenous Papuan children remain traumatised by generations of human rights abuses and the overwhelming military presence.
Conflict and Displacement
Armed Conflict
The Indonesian government remains determined to maintain control over resource-rich West Papua, as emphasised by the new President, Prabowo Subianto. Their strategy encompasses increased security presence, administrative divisions and economic development initiatives. These administrative divisions facilitate military infrastructure expansion, with the government involving the TNI (military) in protecting and implementing agricultural and infrastructure projects. The TNI continues its expansion by establishing new military outposts near indigenous settlements and national strategic projects, as evidenced by indigenous communities in the Silatuga Village, Intan Jaya, protesting military occupation of their land. The armed conflict slowly expands to new regencies with persistent levels of violence on both sides.
Table 2: Armed conflict in West Papua between 2018 and 2024
| Armed violence in West Papua | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 | 2023 | 2024 |
| Number of armed attacks | 44 | 33 | 64 | 85 | 72 | 110 | 135 |
| Number of casualties among security forces | 8 | 18 | 11 | 18 | 19 | 57 | 33 |
| Number of injured security forces | 15 | 12 | 10 | 34 | 29 | 41 | 26 |
| Number of casualties among TPNPB fighters | 12 | 14 | 14 | 24 | 8 | 18 | 21 |
| Number of injured TPNPB fighters | 4 | 0 | 1 | 8 | 1 | 7 | 6 |
| Total number of fatalities among civilians during armed clashes or raids | 42 | 20 | 27 | 28 | 43 | 63 | 44 |
| Number of civilians killed by security force members[3] | 17 | 13 | 20 | 12 | 5 | 23 | 21 |
| Number of civilians killed by TPNPB fighters | 25 | 7 | 7 | 14 | 38 | 40 | 23 |
| Total number of injured civilians | 15 | 9 | 27 | 20 | 21 | 57 | 37 |
| Number of civilians injured by security force members | 7 | 9 | 10 | 7 | 2 | 23 | 21 |
| Number of civilians injured by TPNPB fighters | 8 | 0 | 16 | 13 | 19 | 34 | 16 |
Source: HRM Documentation and Database, the data was compiled from media sources, TPNPB press releases, and information submitted by a network of human rights defenders in West Papua
Data collected by HRM revealed a significant rise in armed attacks from 64 in 2020 to a new peak of 135 in 2024. Police figures on security disturbances by armed criminal groups even mention 203 incidents throughout 2024. Civilian casualties decreased from 63 in 2023 to 44 in 2024, paralleling the reduction in security force fatalities from 57 to 33. This decline may reflect the TNI’s use of sophisticated equipment such as spy and battle drones. However, increasing numbers of injured combatants and TPNPB casualties indicate persistent conflict without signs of pacification in 2024. (see Table 4).
Whilst overall violence levels remain relatively stable, the conflict has spread to previously unaffected areas, including Tambrauw Regency in Papua Barat Daya Province. Armed attacks were reported across 18 regencies in 2024, with Intan Jaya experiencing the highest frequency at 35 clashes. The regencies of Puncak, Nduga, Puncak Jaya, Yahukimo and Paniai recorded between 10 and 20 armed attacks, whilst Mimika, Pegunungan Bintang, Dogiyai and Tambrauw saw minimal activity with four attacks each.
Security force operations in the central highlands, particularly in Pegunungan Bintang and Nduga regencies, raise concerns over tactics involving deliberate destruction of houses and livestock. This persistent pattern appears to be a TNI strategy to disrupt guerrilla fighters’ local supply networks, contributing to the displacement of over 85,000 people by late 2024, severely impacting healthcare and education systems.[4]
The isolated conflict in West Papua gained some international attention after TPNPB’s kidnapping of New Zealand pilot Phillip Mehrtens in Nduga Regency on 7 February 2023. His release to the former Nduga Regent in September 2024 ended 19 months of forced detention. The situation intensified after unknown perpetrators killed another New Zealand pilot in Alama District, Mimika Regency, on 5 August 2024, shortly after TPNPB announced Mehrtens’ planned release. While security forces accused TPNPB of the killing, the group denied responsibility, claiming the TNI conducted a black-ops mission to discredit them.
Internal Displacement
Since December 2018, escalating armed conflict across West Papua has displaced over 85,000 people, predominantly indigenous Papuans. Fear of ongoing violence prevents their return, creating an intensifying humanitarian crisis. Displaced persons have sought sanctuary in safer regencies and cities across West Papua, often arriving with only the clothes they wear. The conflict has forced them to abandon their possessions and severed their access to basic government services, including healthcare and education. The government’s persistent disregard for internally displaced persons (IDPs) exacerbates their plight. Their lack of legal status bars access to humanitarian aid from national and international organisations, leaving them increasingly isolated and vulnerable.
In 2024, new internal displacements were reported in Paniai, Nduga, Tambrauw, Intan Jaya, Puncak, and Pegunungan Bintang. In Nduga, security force members reportedly conducted helicopter bombardments of three villages in the Kroptak District. Whilst the security situation in Maybrat Regency has temporarily stabilised, allowing some IDPs to return home under local government facilitation, observers note this return appeared rushed and pressured. Houses remained unrepaired, and security forces continued to occupy two schools and a district office in Maybrat.
IDP living conditions vary considerably. Some find shelter with relatives, whilst others rent urban accommodation or construct makeshift shelters in the jungle. All face common challenges in accessing basic supplies, healthcare and education. IDPs who fled their home regencies struggle particularly with land access for gardening and living—a critical issue for indigenous Papuans who traditionally rely on their ancestral lands and forests for survival.
Despite documented evidence of conflict-induced displacement since December 2018, the Indonesian government continues to deny the existence of IDPs in West Papua. No comprehensive strategy exists to address their critical needs, including education and healthcare access. Children and elderly persons face particular hardship. Many IDPs who have sought refuge in urban settlements endure overcrowded shelters lacking basic amenities such as electricity. Parents frequently cannot afford school supplies, further compromising their children’s education.
[1] Papuans Behind Bars Database
[2] Based on data published by the Provincial Statistical Centres BPS Papua and BPS Papua Barat between 2014 and 2024. For some regencies, there is no data available.
[3] The figure is composed of civilians killed during armed clashes and security force raids, as well as civilians assassinated by TPNPB members in targeted attacks.
[4] Human Rights Monitor (13.12.2024): IDP Update, December 2024: Security raids trigger new displacements in Nduga, Intan Jaya, Tambrauw and Pegunungan Bintang, available at: https://humanrightsmonitor.org/news/idp-update-december-2024-security-raids-trigger-new-displacements-in-tambrauw-and-pegunungan-bintang/
Table 3: IDPs across West Papua [1], Indonesia, as of December 2024
| Regency | No IDPs | Displaced since | Additional info |
| Nduga[2] | 56,981 | 4 Dec. 18 | IDPs originate from 11 districts in Nduga; more than 615 IDPs reportedly died as of January 2022 |
| Puncak[3] | 2,724 | 27 Apr. 21 | at least 16 IDPs have reportedly died during displacement |
| > 3,000 | 3 Juni 24 | 900 households from districts Agandugume and Oneri fled their villages | |
| Intan Jaya[4] | 5,859 | 26 Oct. 21 | at least 126 IDPs face health issues, and 11 IDPs reportedly died |
| Maybrat[5] | 3.374 | 2 Sep. 21 | IDPs originated from 5 districts; 138 IDPs reportedly died, and the local Govt reportedly facilitated the return of IDPs since November 2022 |
| Pegunungan Bintang (Kiwirok District) [6] | 2,252 | 10 Oct. 21 | about 200 IDPs fled to PNG, 74 IDPs reportedly died, and dozens of IDPs suffered from sickness |
| Pegunungan Bintang (Serambakon District) [7] | 91 | 18 Sep. 23 | ten persons sick, two women pregnant, 47 children among the IDPs |
| Yahukimo (Suru-Suru District) [8] | 1,971 | 20 Nov. 21 | IDPs from 13 villages sought shelter in 15 temporary camps, 16 women gave birth without medical attention, and 13 IDPs reportedly died. |
| Yahukimo (Dekai District) [9] | 554 | 21 Aug. 23 | 13 persons were sick; one died, and two females murdered |
| Fakfak (Kramongmongga District)[10] | 500 | 16 Aug. 23 | N/A |
| Paniai[11] | 2,500 | 12 Apr. 24 | internal displacements were reported from the districts of Paniai Timur, Agadide, Ekadide, and Bibida |
| Pegunungan Bintang (Oksop District) [12] | 3,300 | 8 Dec. 24 | the IDPs originate from Oketumi, Mimin, Alutbakon, Atenor, and Bumbakon villages, including 251 toddlers, 45 elderly persons, ten pregnant women, and at least six sick persons urgently requiring medical attention |
| Nduga (Kroptak District) [13] | 2,000 | 7 Dec. 24 | first counts mentioned 65 toddlers, eight pregnant women, five severely ill individuals, and 15 elderly persons. |
| T O T A L | > 85,103 | ||
[1] The term ‘West Papua’ in this table refers to the western half of New Guinea Island, composed of the Indonesian provinces of Papua, Papua Pegunungan, Papua Tengah, Papua Selatan, Papua Barat, and Papua Barat Daya
[2] Compiled by a group of Papuan human rights defenders that visited IDPs from Nduga in the town of Wamena and surrounding areas between 12 and 20 July 2023
[3] Jubi (9.11.2021): SORAKPATOK: 300 tewas dan 50 ribu warga Papua mengungsi, available at: https://jubi.co.id/sorakpatok-300-tewas-dan-50-ribu-warga-papua-mengungsi/&
Jubi (12.07.2024): 500 KK dari Distrik Agandugume dan Oneri, sudah sebulan lebih mengungsi di Sinak, available at: https://jubi.id/polhukam/2024/500-kk-dari-distrik-agandugume-dan-oneri-sudah-sebulan-lebih-mengungsi-di-sinak/
[4] CNN Indonesia (30.10.2021): Ribuan Warga Papua Mengungsi Usai Pecah Kontak Senjata, available at: https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20211030195433-12-714496/ribuan-warga-papua-mengungsi-usai-pecah-kontak-senjata
[5] Figures published by the National human Rights Commission (Komnas HAM) in July 2023, updated information published by Jubi (10.04.2024): 3.387 warga sipil Maybrat masih mengungsi, available at: https://jubi.id/polhukam/2024/3-387-warga-sipil-maybrat-masih-mengungsi/
[6] Compiled from multiple lists with names of IDPs, which local human rights defenders compiled in Pegunugan Bintang between April and July 2023. Church workers updated the number of deaths in July 2023
[7] The number is based on a name list compiled by human rights defenders in Serambakon shortly after the displacements occurred.
[8] The number is based on data compiled by local church workers. The information was received in February 2022
[9] The number is based on a name list that human rights defenders in Dekai compiled in September 2023
[10] Based on an estimation made by local human rights defenders in Kramongmongga in September 2023
[11] Based on information shared by local observers in Paniai on 16 April 2024
[12] Based on data collected by the GIDI Church and local informants
[13] Based on data collected by human rights defenders in Kroptak. HRM received the reports on 18.12.2024
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About Human Rights Monitor
The Human Rights Monitor (HRM) is an independent, international non-profit project promoting human rights through documentation and advocacy. HRM is based in the European Union and active since 2022. We are achieving our vision by documenting violations; researching institutional, social and political contexts that affect rights protection and peace; and sharing the conclusions of evidence-based monitoring work.
A description of each of the cases of human rights violations mentioned and counted in this report is available at https://humanrightsmonitor.org/cases
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[1] Papuans Behind Bars Database
[2] Based on data published by the Provincial Statistical Centres BPS Papua and BPS Papua Barat between 2014 and 2024. For some regencies, there is no data available.
[3] The figure is composed of civilians killed during armed clashes and security force raids, as well as civilians assassinated by TPNPB members in targeted attacks.
[4] Human Rights Monitor (13.12.2024): IDP Update, December 2024: Security raids trigger new displacements in Nduga, Intan Jaya, Tambrauw and Pegunungan Bintang, available at: https://humanrightsmonitor.org/news/idp-update-december-2024-security-raids-trigger-new-displacements-in-tambrauw-and-pegunungan-bintang/
